Until recently, time the name of General VS Mikhailov is rarely found in historical publications, his work itself proceeded in this sphere, which is not subject to universal Review. Created on the eve of the death of his major literary work (published below) - «Essay on the history of military industry» (1928) - not "was released, how come the other major special studies, and vice versa, was hidden under the stamp:" Secret. Used only for military and scientific work and business purposes. " Multiplied in a few numbered copies, he was immediately withdrawn even from departmental circulation, since the author was arrested on false charges of counter-revolutionary conspiracy and executed. The fact of existence in 1928 such work was known only to specialists, committed to the classified material that appeared in this short period of time and could still contain a mention of it. Only recently, when gradually recovered memory of the victims of the communist regime, the name of the executed engineer appeared in print a .
Wednesday, September 10, 2008
List Of Ticklish Celebrity
Mikhailov VS Essays on the history of military industry (with a preface by VV Polikarpov)
Tuesday, July 29, 2008
Phrases To Write In A Baby Congrats Card
expelled and killed
14 million Germans were expelled from their homes in Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary and other Eastern European countries after the war. Only 12 million were able to get to Germany alive. The tragedy of the expulsion of German civilians not recognized Germany's neighbors are still
In many cities, ethnic Germans were required to wear clothing decals, sometimes with a swastika
Photo: Oestlichenachbam.bayern.de
«B reslau, Oppeln, Gleyvits, Glogau, Grunberg - not just names, but the memories that will live the souls more than one generation. Rejection of them - treason. Cross expulsion shall carry all the people "- these words, addressed in 1963 by exiled from Eastern Europe to the Germans belong to the Federal Chancellor Willy Brandt.
symbolic that, in listing the city of which were brutally expelled German population, Brandt calls and Gleyvits - a small town on the old border of Germany and Poland, with German provocations which started in the second World War II.
Anyway, at the end of the war most had to drink the bitter cup, not the beginning of its military elite, and ethnic Germans, resided in the territory of Eastern Europe. Despite the fact that he acted at that time, the Hague Convention of 1907 expressly prohibits expropriation of the civilian population (art. 46), and denied the principle of collective responsibility (Article 50), almost fifteen million Germans, mostly women, elderly and children, within three years had been driven from their homes and their property - looted.
Exile Germans from Eastern Europe was accompanied by large-scale organized violence, including confiscation of property, move to a concentration camps and deportation - despite the fact that in August 1945, the Statute of the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg declared the deportation of nations as a crime against humanity.
Polish disaster
largest scale expulsion of the Germans reached in Poland. By the end of the war in This country is home to more than 4 million Germans. They were mostly concentrated on the German territory transferred to Poland in 1945: in Silesia (1,6 million), Pomerania (1.8 million) and in East Brandenburg (600 thousand), as well as historic areas densely populated by Germans in the territory Poland (400 thousand). In addition, more than 2 million Germans lived in East Prussia, go under Soviet control.
first working version of the deportation of the Germans was submitted to the Government of the Benes Allied Powers in November 1944
Photo: Oestlichenachbam.bayern.de
early winter 1945, waiting for the imminent arrival of Soviet troops, living in Poland, the Germans moved west, and the local Polish population began to mass violence against refugees. Spring of 1945, the whole Polish villages specialized in looting fleeing Germans - men killed, women raped.
early February 5, 1945
May 2, 1945 Take signed a decree according to which all Germans abandoned property is automatically passed into the hands of the Polish State - Thus expected to facilitate the resettlement of displaced populations to the west from the eastern territories, partial retreat of the Soviet Union.
parallel, the Polish authorities subjected the remaining German population of persecution on the model of those that were practiced in Nazi Germany against Jews. Thus, in many cities ethnic Germans were required to wear clothing decals, mostly white armbands, sometimes with a swastika. Hanging on the German markings, however, did not stop.
Already by the summer of 1945, the Polish government began rounding up the remaining German population into concentration camps, usually calculated at 3-5 thousand. In the camp were sent only to adults, children in this taken away from parents and passed either in shelters or in a Polish family - in any case, their further education was conducted in a spirit of absolute polonization. Adults also used as forced laborers, and in the winter of 1945/1946, the mortality in the camps reached 50%.
Operation interned German population is actively carried out until the autumn of 1946, when the Polish government decided to begin the deportation of survivors Germans. September 13 signed a decree on the "office of German nationality of the Polish people." However, the continued exploitation of prisoners concentration camps to be an important component of the economies of Poland and the deportation of Germans kept putting it off, despite the decree. Camps continued violence over the German prisoners. So, in the camp Potulitse between 1947 and 1949 from hunger, cold, disease and abuse by security guards killed half the prisoners.
final deportation of Germans from Poland was started only after 1949. Estimated Union expelled the Germans, the loss of the German population in exile from Poland amounted to about 3 million people.
Truly Czech thoroughness
second country after Poland in scale solutions, "German question" was Czechoslovakia. In pre-war Czechoslovakia, the Germans were a quarter of the population country. They were mostly concentrated in the Sudetenland - there are 3 million Germans, representing 93% of the population of the region. A large proportion of Germans present and in Moravia (800 thousand people, or one quarter of the population), a large German community there was in Bratislava.
In 1938, received at the conference Munich approval of Heads of Governments of Britain, France and Italy, Nazi Germany occupied the Sudetenland, adding to its territory neighborhood-Germans. In 1939, German troops occupied the remainder of Czechoslovakia, the Czech Republic is based on the so-called protectorate Bohemia and Moravia and in Slovakia - the puppet Slovak Republic. However, the government had left the Czech Republic in London.
It was in London Czech government in exile, first to formulate plans for the mass deportation of ethnic Germans after the war. Hubert Ripka, the nearest Adviser to the President Edward Benes, dreaming about the mass expulsion of Germans already in 1941, arguing in the pages of newspapers Čechoslovak - an official body Czech government in exile - the "organized by the application of the principle of resettlement of peoples."
views of his adviser fully shared and President Benes. In autumn 1941 and winter of 1942 Benes published two articles in the journals The Nineteenth Century and After, and Foreign Affairs, which developed the concept of "moving population, which should be to help streamline the post-war Europe. Not being sure, will be persuaded the British in the implementation plans to deport three million German inhabitants, the Czech government in exile, just in case to begin similar negotiations with representatives of Soviet leadership.
In March 1943, Benes met with Soviet Ambassador Alexander Bogomolov and asked for support for their plans ethnic cleansing of postwar Czechoslovakia. Bogomolov, declined to discuss plans, however, Benes was indefatigable, and even during trips to the USA в июне 1943−го смог убедить как американское, так и советское руководство поддержать планы депортации немцев. Получив эту поддержку, чешское правительство began to develop a detailed plan of ethnic cleansing. First working version of the deportation of the Germans was submitted by the Government of the Benes union Powers in November 1944. According to the memorandum of Benes, the deportation should be carried out in all areas of the Czech population is less than 67% (two thirds) and continue for as long as the German population had been reduced to below 33%.
to implement these plans, the Czech authorities have started immediately after the liberation of Czechoslovakia by Soviet troops. In the spring of 1945 across the country began the massive acts of violence against ethnic Germans.
main engine of violence made by volunteering 1 st Czechoslovak Brigade, commanded by Ludvik Svoboda - the so-called Army Freedom. Ludvik Svoboda had old scores with ethnic Germans. In 1938, following the accession of the Sudetenland to Germany, the Liberty was one of the founders of "Protection of the Nation" - Czech guerrilla insurgent organization. Now, 60 thousand Czech soldiers, commanded by Ludvik Svoboda had the opportunity to revenge which became a defenseless German population.
Clippings root
Entire villages and towns inhabited by the Germans, experienced unpunished Violence Czechs. Across the country, from the German population formed marching columns, people are not allowed to gather virtually any things - and without остановок гнали к границе. Отставших или упавших зачастую убивали прямо на глазах у всей колонны. Местному чешскому населению было строго запрещено provide any assistance deportees to the Germans.
In only one such "death march" - the expulsion of 27 thousand Germans from Brno - at a distance 55 km were killed, according to various estimates, from 4 to 8 thousand people.
expulsion of Germans from Eastern Europe was accompanied by large-scale organized violence, including the confiscation of property, putting into concentration camps and deportation
Photo: Oestlichenachbam.bayern.de
At the border the Germans were expelled procedure "customs clearance", during which they often were taken even the few things that they carry on themselves. But those who managed to get to the occupation zones in the former Germany - even robbed - jealous of his compatriots who have remained under властью Бенеша.
17 мая 1945 года отряд чешских военных вошел в городок Ландскрон (сегодня Ланшкроун) и устроил «суд» над его жителями, в ходе которого within three days was sentenced to death 121 people - sentences are executed immediately. In Postelberge (today Postoloprty) within five days - from 3 to 7 June 1945 - the Czechs were tortured and killed 760 Germans aged 15 to 60 years, one fifth of the German city's population.
One of the most heinous cases occurred during the night from 18 th to June 19 in the city Prerau (today Prerov). Czech soldiers there, coming back from Prague with celebrations of the end of the war, met with a train carrying German population, which at the end of the war were evacuated in Bohemia and now deported to the Soviet occupation zone. Czechs, Germans were ordered to leave the train and begin to excavate for the mass grave. Old men and women are hard to fulfill orders to soldiers and the grave was ready until midnight. After that Czech soldiers under command of an officer Carol Pazura shot 265 Germans, among whom were 120 women and 74 children. The oldest of those killed were civilians 80 years old and the youngest - eight months. After finishing shooting, the Czechs sacked things that belonged to the refugees.
Dozens of similar cases have occurred
«Spontaneous retaliation" peaked
Such a sharp escalation of violence forced the allies to express their dissatisfaction with these actions, which immediately aroused strong dissatisfaction with the Czechs, have dealt with the murder and expulsion of the Germans as their natural right. The result of dissatisfaction with the Czechs became the note of August 16, 1945, in which Czech government has raised the total deportation of the remaining 2.5 million Germans. According to the note, 1.75 million people have been resettled in the U.S. occupation zone, and 0.75 million - in the Soviet. About 500 thousand Germans by this time had already been expelled from the country. The outcome of negotiations with the union of Czechs Powers has permission to deport the German population, but in an orderly manner and without incident. By 1950, Czechoslovakia, escaped of the German minority.
Europe without the Germans
apparent in Poland and the Czech Republic, violence against ethnic Germans in one degree or another observed in other Eastern European countries. In Hungary, the Hungarian authorities to conflict with the German minority clearly manifested itself even before the war. Already in 1920, immediately after the formation of a national Hungarian state, the country began to pursue a policy of harsh discrimination against the German minority. German schools were closed, ethnic Germans were purged from the government. The man with the German name was ordered any career. In 1930, an order Secretary of Defense ordered all the officers, wearing German names, change them to the Hungarian - or resign.
the German position improved markedly after turning Hungary into a satellite of Nazi Germany, but few of the Germans living in Hungary doubted that with the departure of German troops their positions very seriously impaired. That's why in April 1944, German troops have taken a number of unsuccessful attempts to evacuate ethnic Germans from Hungary.
crackdown began in March 1945. March 15 new Hungarian government adopted a draft land reform, under which it was possible to confiscate the land as the German organizations, and the Germans - of individuals. However, even landless Germans remained a thorn for the Hungarian authorities. Therefore, in December 1945 was prepared by the decree of deportation "traitors and enemies of the people."
Under this category fall not only members of the German military forces, but also persons who have returned themselves between 1940 and 1945, the German name, and identified in the census in 1940 as their native language German. All property is subject to deportation unconditional confiscation. According to various It is estimated that the deportation raised from 500 to 600 thousand ethnic Germans.
nonthermal reception
Probably the most peaceful deportation of Germans held in Romania. Here at the end of the war there were about 750 thousand Germans, many of which were centrally relocated to Romania in 1940 from the territories occupied by Soviet troops (the resettlement of Germans in Romania from Soviet Moldova regulated by treaties between the USSR and Germany on September 5 1940).
After the capitulation of the government of Antonescu and the arrival of Soviet troops of the new Romanian government to refrain from harassment policy German minority. While in areas densely populated by Germans, a curfew was imposed, and the residents were confiscated cars, bicycles, radios and other items considered dangerous, in Romania, almost did not report any spontaneous or organized cases of violence against the German population. Gradual deportation of Germans from the country continued until the early 1950's, and in recent years, the Germans themselves sought permission to travel to Germany.
By 1950 the population at the beginning of Soviet and Western occupation zones, and then East and West Germany increased за счет прибывших беженцев на 12 млн человек. Изгнанные из стран Восточной Европы немцы были распределены практически по всем регионам Германии, In some areas, such as Mecklenburg
Meanwhile, despite the large proportion of refugees, the issue of expulsion of Germans from Eastern Europe has long remained a taboo subject in both the east and the west. In the western zones of occupation - and later in Germany - Ousted the Germans until 1950 it was forbidden to organize any unions. According to historian Ingo Haar, dealing with the problems of uprooted Germans, only the beginning of the Korean War and the worsening of relations with the Soviet Union led western politicians to acknowledge the suffering of the German people and legalize mention the expulsion of Germans from Poland, Czechoslovakia and other countries.
In the GDR, the events were concealed until the late 1980's as capable of seriously complicate relations with the communist Czechoslovakia and Poland. Today the topic of expulsion of Germans from Eastern Europe still remains one of the most sensitive issues in relations between Germany and Poland and the Czech Republic. According to opinion polls, more than half of Germans still perceive Silesia and Pomerania as German territory - though not seek to return them to the German.
Poles did not cease to express their related to the activities of the Union of German expellees, putting on magazine covers, collages, depicting the leader of the Union Eric Steinbach in SS form. The protests of the Polish government and led to the opening this year in Berlin, the information center dedicated to the deportation of Germans from Poland. Even today, the pain of half a century old crime and mutual resentment sosedstvuyushie make people wary of the slightest attempt remember what happened in 1945.
Thursday, July 10, 2008
How To Make My Hair Stay In Place
Lupa Capitolina
Lupa Capitolina, the famous bronze sculpture, housed Capitoline Museums in Rome, was founded in the XIII century AD, but not in the V century BC. Such conclusion was a group of researchers from the University of Salerno headed by Professor Adriano La Regina, in the past - the largest Roman officials for Cultural Heritage. A new dating of the She-wolf wrote The Guardian quoting at La Reppublica.
from the XVIII century, when the Lupa Capitolina has described the largest German art historian Johann Winckelmann, this sculpture was considered Etruscan. Authorship small statues of Romulus and Remus were known documented: they did at the end of the XV century Florentine artist Antonio del Pollayolo. In the XIX century assumption Winckelmann tried to challenge at least two scientists who believed a she-wolf later, medieval work, but the authority of the German writer was so great that his opinion continued to listen.
In 2006, Anna Maria Karrubi (Anna Maria Carruba), a specialist in metallurgy, restored Lupa Capitolina, unveiled conclusions: in her view, the sculpture could not do before VIII-X centuries. The fact that the ancients were not able to cast large statues all: they were made in installments, and then welded. Lupa also was made immediately and completely.
Lupa Capitolina is the symbol of the football club Roma, Italy used its in the symbolism of the Rome Olympics in 1960.
Lupa Capitolina, the famous bronze sculpture, housed Capitoline Museums in Rome, was founded in the XIII century AD, but not in the V century BC. Such conclusion was a group of researchers from the University of Salerno headed by Professor Adriano La Regina, in the past - the largest Roman officials for Cultural Heritage. A new dating of the She-wolf wrote The Guardian quoting at La Reppublica.
from the XVIII century, when the Lupa Capitolina has described the largest German art historian Johann Winckelmann, this sculpture was considered Etruscan. Authorship small statues of Romulus and Remus were known documented: they did at the end of the XV century Florentine artist Antonio del Pollayolo. In the XIX century assumption Winckelmann tried to challenge at least two scientists who believed a she-wolf later, medieval work, but the authority of the German writer was so great that his opinion continued to listen.
In 2006, Anna Maria Karrubi (Anna Maria Carruba), a specialist in metallurgy, restored Lupa Capitolina, unveiled conclusions: in her view, the sculpture could not do before VIII-X centuries. The fact that the ancients were not able to cast large statues all: they were made in installments, and then welded. Lupa also was made immediately and completely.
Lupa Capitolina is the symbol of the football club Roma, Italy used its in the symbolism of the Rome Olympics in 1960.
Wednesday, July 9, 2008
Car Sales Person Cover Letter
Polish historians have lost documents about "Katyn case"
Staff of the Polish Institute National Memory can not find documents about the Katyn events, they have received from Russian archives in 1992. Loss of these papers from the archives of IEF officially confirmed the head of the Investigations Division of the Institute Dariusz Gabrel, speaking before the Polish Sejm. This is an officially certified Russian party copies of documents relating to the execution of Polish officers in Katyn Forest near Smolensk. These documents were handed over to the then Polish President Lech Walesa.
the first time the disappearance of the documents was seen two years ago, but then the INP staff felt that forwarded these paper in the office of President of Poland. Later, it became clear that for them there either. This is not the first time in Poland from the archives of IEF missing documents related with "Katyn affair". ITAR-TASS
Staff of the Polish Institute National Memory can not find documents about the Katyn events, they have received from Russian archives in 1992. Loss of these papers from the archives of IEF officially confirmed the head of the Investigations Division of the Institute Dariusz Gabrel, speaking before the Polish Sejm. This is an officially certified Russian party copies of documents relating to the execution of Polish officers in Katyn Forest near Smolensk. These documents were handed over to the then Polish President Lech Walesa.
the first time the disappearance of the documents was seen two years ago, but then the INP staff felt that forwarded these paper in the office of President of Poland. Later, it became clear that for them there either. This is not the first time in Poland from the archives of IEF missing documents related with "Katyn affair". ITAR-TASS
Wednesday, June 25, 2008
Mount And Blade Whats The Best Unit
Riga - Rugia?
But there is one interesting interpretation that for some reason, virtually unknown in a wide circle of the reading public, although suggested it was still in XVI century a highly respected man. Philipp Melanchthon (1497-1560) seriously believe that the name of Riga could happen from the ancient Slavic population of the island Reagen (Ruegen, Rujan), which is located at the German Baltic Sea coast [Fischer, 152] . Come out, the Baltic Slavs - Wendy, first settled in the ancient hill fort called the name of their historic homeland. Reagen mountain, river, Riga, Riga, so here is the quite logical chain. But most interesting is that this version has quite a scandalous material confirmation!
As we know, the island of Ruegen was the main shrine Baltic Slavs. There, in city Arcona, was sanctuary god Svyatovita. Stood Idol with four bearded heads, facing in different side. And held He in one hand sword, and in other horn of plenty. Huge eagle lived at temple and was considered dedicated Svyatovitu. Images chetyrehlikogo idol is a striking feature of the cult of the Slavic deities. So, it is these figures with four persons were found in Riga during archaeological excavations! This can easily make any visitor to the Museum of the History of Riga and Navigation, where the stands on the early history of the town, peacefully resting unique testimonials of the Baltic Slavs in Riga earth. All interested refer to primary source : JBFischer. Hinter-Bergen allgemeine und eigene Winter und Sommerlust, mit untermischten physikalischen un moralischen Betrachtungen, in Versen beschrieben von daselbt. Riga, 1745.
Ancient Rugiya , under which, obviously, some Russian chroniclers meant the Baltic, "Varangian" Rus "is designated in the sources are different: Rugiya, ruthenium (Rusin), Royal, Ruyana, Reun, etc. ( Rugia , Ruthenia, Russia, Rojana, Rujana, Reune).
But there is one interesting interpretation that for some reason, virtually unknown in a wide circle of the reading public, although suggested it was still in XVI century a highly respected man. Philipp Melanchthon (1497-1560) seriously believe that the name of Riga could happen from the ancient Slavic population of the island Reagen (Ruegen, Rujan), which is located at the German Baltic Sea coast [Fischer, 152] . Come out, the Baltic Slavs - Wendy, first settled in the ancient hill fort called the name of their historic homeland. Reagen mountain, river, Riga, Riga, so here is the quite logical chain. But most interesting is that this version has quite a scandalous material confirmation!
As we know, the island of Ruegen was the main shrine Baltic Slavs. There, in city Arcona, was sanctuary god Svyatovita. Stood Idol with four bearded heads, facing in different side. And held He in one hand sword, and in other horn of plenty. Huge eagle lived at temple and was considered dedicated Svyatovitu. Images chetyrehlikogo idol is a striking feature of the cult of the Slavic deities. So, it is these figures with four persons were found in Riga during archaeological excavations! This can easily make any visitor to the Museum of the History of Riga and Navigation, where the stands on the early history of the town, peacefully resting unique testimonials of the Baltic Slavs in Riga earth. All interested refer to primary source : JBFischer. Hinter-Bergen allgemeine und eigene Winter und Sommerlust, mit untermischten physikalischen un moralischen Betrachtungen, in Versen beschrieben von daselbt. Riga, 1745.
Ancient Rugiya , under which, obviously, some Russian chroniclers meant the Baltic, "Varangian" Rus "is designated in the sources are different: Rugiya, ruthenium (Rusin), Royal, Ruyana, Reun, etc. ( Rugia , Ruthenia, Russia, Rojana, Rujana, Reune).
also known starokeltskie name of the island Rugniatis, Run, Rhun, Rugnos, Ruan. [65] Accordingly, the inhabitants Islands are named: Rugi, Ruteny (Rusyns), Rustsi, Royal, Ruyyany, Wounds (Rugi, Rutheni, Ruteni, Rusci, Russici, Rojani, Rujani, Rani). T. Milevsky, apparently, tend to produce ethnonym "wounds" from "Royal". [66] But in its original Slavic meaning, as well as in the German origin of the name "rugi, can be questioned. On Ruegen in the second half of I millennium certainly a change of language, but there is no reason to think that this was achieved by changing the population. Specifying G. Mercator on bilingualism Riigen "Ruthenium" shows the process of natural assimilation of indigenous Slavs. "Vindalsky" language in the title of which (as in ethnonym "Wends") is also clearly emerges Celtic origin, and was in all likelihood, the original language of the population Rugii, but different names for the island can denote the same population, or even pass the same quality of the underlying name.
name "Ruteny" bore, as is known, one Celtic tribes settled long before Mr.. er. (And came from somewhere in north or central Europe) in southern France. French explorer of the tribe "Ruthenium from Ruerga» (Rouergue - name of the province since Roman times), no doubt about the importance of ethno name: the Celtic language it means "red", "red". "Red ruthenium »(flavi rutheni) calls them, by the way, and I in the Roman author. Lucan. [67] main town called Ruthenia Rodes or Rutena. Name it is in connection with the river Rodanos (current Rhone). On the other hand, the Gallic roudos - «red - handed down in various Celtic languages and dialects as ruad, rudd, ruth, ruz, rubes. [68] Modern French roux, rousse - «red, Redhead and rouge - «red" have done a certain evolution of roge, ruge same rubes. [69] Another AS Famintsin pointed out that in the Serbian language, the word "ruyan" means "dark red, yellow-red ". [70] similar values is a word preserved in other Slavic languages, but it gradually supplanted by other synonyms. Medieval Greek Chronography was known view that the word 'Russian' means "red." [71] Liudprand plainly says that "a northern people, which the Greeks on the outside quality (and qualitate corporis) called Russa (rusios), and we are at their location Nordmann. [72]
Thus, the diversity of titles Rugii and its inhabitants is only playing in different languages and dialects, especially in the Celtic languages, the same original quality. It is noteworthy that the authors XII century. Gerbord and Ebony is placed on the northern borders of Poland, "Ru" and next to them some "Flavio." [73] Here, perhaps, it is a kindred tribes or even of the same tribe: "Ru" - a "red" from Celtic, and "Flavy" - the same thing from the Latin.
Southerners, of course, have been hit light "Veneto" (Wends), and "ruteny (Russes) in such a case could be one of the noticeable their branches. But the "external quality", which is distinguished by ruthenium, not necessarily corresponds to their natural form. The fact that the Celts artificially changed the hair color and even painted. [74] Romans landed in Britain discovered that the islanders' painted Wajda, who gives their body the color blue, and from this they battle terrifying others to view. [75] Legendary hero of the Irish sagas Goydel Glas (Goydel Green) was nicknamed by the color of his weapons and clothing. [76] Colors of many ancient peoples (among European primarily from the Celts) and had a religious symbolism. Purple, red color symbolizes power, power. Adam of Bremen and Gelmold note that among the Baltic Slavs only wound-rugi have a king. [77] But Rügen secular power was generally less noticeable than the priesthood. Obviously, "Royal" was a whole tribe. This, perhaps, explains the ritual painting. As reported by Saxo Grammaticus, in the capture of Arkona in 1918 in the trunks under lock and key has been found many purple clothes, from the dilapidation is rotten and thin. [78] not be ruled out that apparel Russes and the corresponding coloring encouraged the Greeks say that they "their views show the bloodshed." [79] But in the XII century. "Locked up" were not only shabby clothes, but also the tradition.
name "Ruteny" bore, as is known, one Celtic tribes settled long before Mr.. er. (And came from somewhere in north or central Europe) in southern France. French explorer of the tribe "Ruthenium from Ruerga» (Rouergue - name of the province since Roman times), no doubt about the importance of ethno name: the Celtic language it means "red", "red". "Red ruthenium »(flavi rutheni) calls them, by the way, and I in the Roman author. Lucan. [67] main town called Ruthenia Rodes or Rutena. Name it is in connection with the river Rodanos (current Rhone). On the other hand, the Gallic roudos - «red - handed down in various Celtic languages and dialects as ruad, rudd, ruth, ruz, rubes. [68] Modern French roux, rousse - «red, Redhead and rouge - «red" have done a certain evolution of roge, ruge same rubes. [69] Another AS Famintsin pointed out that in the Serbian language, the word "ruyan" means "dark red, yellow-red ". [70] similar values is a word preserved in other Slavic languages, but it gradually supplanted by other synonyms. Medieval Greek Chronography was known view that the word 'Russian' means "red." [71] Liudprand plainly says that "a northern people, which the Greeks on the outside quality (and qualitate corporis) called Russa (rusios), and we are at their location Nordmann. [72]
Thus, the diversity of titles Rugii and its inhabitants is only playing in different languages and dialects, especially in the Celtic languages, the same original quality. It is noteworthy that the authors XII century. Gerbord and Ebony is placed on the northern borders of Poland, "Ru" and next to them some "Flavio." [73] Here, perhaps, it is a kindred tribes or even of the same tribe: "Ru" - a "red" from Celtic, and "Flavy" - the same thing from the Latin.
Southerners, of course, have been hit light "Veneto" (Wends), and "ruteny (Russes) in such a case could be one of the noticeable their branches. But the "external quality", which is distinguished by ruthenium, not necessarily corresponds to their natural form. The fact that the Celts artificially changed the hair color and even painted. [74] Romans landed in Britain discovered that the islanders' painted Wajda, who gives their body the color blue, and from this they battle terrifying others to view. [75] Legendary hero of the Irish sagas Goydel Glas (Goydel Green) was nicknamed by the color of his weapons and clothing. [76] Colors of many ancient peoples (among European primarily from the Celts) and had a religious symbolism. Purple, red color symbolizes power, power. Adam of Bremen and Gelmold note that among the Baltic Slavs only wound-rugi have a king. [77] But Rügen secular power was generally less noticeable than the priesthood. Obviously, "Royal" was a whole tribe. This, perhaps, explains the ritual painting. As reported by Saxo Grammaticus, in the capture of Arkona in 1918 in the trunks under lock and key has been found many purple clothes, from the dilapidation is rotten and thin. [78] not be ruled out that apparel Russes and the corresponding coloring encouraged the Greeks say that they "their views show the bloodshed." [79] But in the XII century. "Locked up" were not only shabby clothes, but also the tradition.
Wednesday, June 11, 2008
American Silver Coins What Year Did Stop Making
FUNDAMENTAL AND APPLIED PROBLEMS
At a meeting of the Presidium of the Academy of Sciences discussed the complex from a technical point of view and important from the standpoint of achieving military advantage in the air to reduce the problem of radar visibility of aircraft - a powerful striking force of modern armies. The search for the solution together are representatives of basic and applied science. Their work was a radical reduction of radar visibility serial fourth-generation aircraft such as Su-27. How this was achieved, explains below, published an article based on any scientific report on RAS Presidium.
FUNDAMENTAL AND APPLIED PROBLEMS
stealth technologies
AN Lagar'kov, MA Pogosyan
Lagar'kov Andrei - corr. RAS, Director of the Institute of Theoretical and Applied Electrodynamics, Joint Institute for High Temperatures RAN.
Mikhail Pogosyan Aslanovich - corr. RAS, director of PMT Air Industrial Complex Sukhoi.
Contrary to recent trends in Russian language, we still decided to use the English term "stele" - "secretive", "secret" in the title of our report, primarily because he had already taken root in national literature and is widely used in our press, and in the foreign, including in non-English speaking countries. Under the stealth technology is now involve complex technical solutions, which resulted in reduced levels of the signals coming from the military facility to the receiving system, trying to object to detect and destroy. These signals are transferred by acoustic and electromagnetic waves in a wide range of frequencies. We shall deal here only one problem, namely: reducing the signal level resulting from the reflection object of the electromagnetic waves emitted by the radar. Radar station - the most "distant" means detection and guidance, and the first boom in the press about the stealth technology was associated with the emergence of the American the F-117, was created primarily to successful overcoming air defense system of the Soviet Union, equipped with powerful radars.
Ben Rich, former head of the plant firm Lockheed, in his memoirs about creating the F-117 maintains a history of stealth technology since 1975, linking it to begin with this aircraft. In fact, first steps were made in Germany at the end of World War II. As a result, the British night attack aircraft equipped with radar, have risen sharply loss of German submarines. It was then that their cabin began to apply radio-absorbing coating and was developed by serial production technology fine ferromagnetic fillers used in coatings. Since then, the problem of reducing the radar visibility of various objects weapons and military equipment attracts serious attention in industrialized countries.
main characteristic determining the properties of plane as reflecting electromagnetic radiation of the object is the effective scattering surface. It characterizes the ability to convert incident electromagnetic wave to the scattered wave propagating in the direction of the receiver. In the future we will consider monostatic location, when the transmitter and receiver are located in one place. Effective scattering surface (ESR) is defined as:
s = 4 p R 0 2 S s / S i ,
where R 0 - the distance between the transmitter and the object; S s - the energy flux density of the scattered wave near the receiver; S i - density energy flux of the incident wave near the body.
value of the ESR depends on the orientation of the object relative to the radar beam and the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation. For physicists, the best analogy of the EPR - is the differential scattering cross back. If we consider the frequency dependence of ESR metal ball (Fig. 1) a range of short wavelengths EPR coincides with an area of its cross section. For wavelengths comparable with the dimensions of the ball, there are diffraction minima and maximums.
Fig. 1. Frequency dependence of the effective scattering surface of a metallic sphere a - radius sphere, l - wavelength
Figure 2 shows the ESR of the cylinder depending on the angle of incidence of electromagnetic waves for the wave vector, lying in a plane that passes through the axis of the cylinder in Figure 3 - EPR modern aircraft for different directions of incidence of electromagnetic wave in the horizontal plane passing through the axis of the aircraft. Due to the complex shape of the object to its ESR showed significant fluctuations in the values very small change in the angles of the electromagnetic wave. Such a pattern is due to diffraction phenomena and the subsequent interference of electromagnetic waves reflected from different parts of the aircraft with the appropriate phase delay of each reflecting element.
Fig. 2 . The angular dependence of the effective scattering surface of the cylinder
D and L - the diameter and length of the cylinder, q - the angle of incidence of electromagnetic waves; arrow indicates the direction of its fall
Fig. 3. "facet" model of the Su-27 (top) and diagram of the effective surface scattering plane
depending on the angle in the horizontal plane (bottom)
solid line corresponds to the scatterplot of real plane, dashed - aircraft with reduced radar visibility, 1 and 2 - averaged over a range of angles ± 30 ° the values of the EPR
Naturally, in practice, are interested in the values of ESR, averaged over a relatively small range of angles because of the inevitable oscillation trajectory precisely determine the average level of the signal being processed in the receiver. The task of the stele, the technology is possible a possible decrease in the EPR aircraft. For example, a qualitative leap in military capabilities into the aircraft, there would be the case if, instead of ESR, shown in Figure 3, solid line, we could obtain the EPR, as shown in the same figure the dotted line.
Stealth technology includes the following main areas: theory of diffraction by complex bodies, development and study of radar absorbing materials, coating technology, and finally, Radiophysics experiment used to control each of these areas.
currently stealth technology starts with the mathematical modeling of scattering electromagnetic wave on an object, the radar visibility of which must be reduced. This step is crucial for a preliminary assessment of the achievable results and to optimize the shape and electrical characteristics of the object. Mathematical and computational models based on solving the boundary diffraction problems of electromagnetic waves on bodies of complex shape, having in its composition, special materials and coatings. Capabilities of modern computing techniques allow the creation of software for modeling the scattering of electromagnetic waves, even in such complex objects such as airplanes and ships, given the variety of suspended equipment, crevices, covers and many other seemingly minor details of the construction.
on the world market offers several software packages that are suitable for such modeling. All of them are under development using the "facet" model of the object it which will be lower, and the method of the physical theory of diffraction. In the well-known reasons, due to closeness of such works, until recently, domestic print (as opposed to the foreign press) are not published information about a specific application of mathematical modeling of scattering by objects of weaponry and military equipment. However, the analysis of scientific literature on the theory of diffraction of specialists in the field of electrodynamics, it was easy to assess the level of development of the industry.
Contribution of Russian scientists in the theory of diffraction is not only significant, but in many important ways the fundamental. Suffice it to mention the names of academician VA Fock, Professor E. N. Vasilyev and P. J. Ufimtseva. VA Fock, not just the first to formulate the integral equations relative to the current on the surface of the irradiated metal body, but also suggested that an approximate solution for bodies with a large radius of curvature. Pioneer were the work of E. Vasilieva on numerical solution of integral equations in the problem of electromagnetic excitation of metallic bodies. PY Ufimtsev - Founder method of edge waves in physical theory of diffraction, which is of exceptional importance in the development of stealth action recognized by the international scientific community. That numerical methods for solving scattering problems using integral equations, estimation of scattering properties of the method of edge waves, and the combination of these methods have been used by us in many models of electrodynamic objects with low radar visibility.
Institute's staff Theoretical and Applied Electrodynamics RAS for many years, developing numerical methods, relying on the achievements of both Russian and foreign Schools diffraction theory. The application of asymptotic and hybrid algorithms requires a clear understanding of the physical phenomena that lead to the formation of the scattered field in each case: specular reflection, diffraction at the edges, running waves, multiple reflections inside cavities, etc. Accounting mirror reflections of real objects is realized through the development of "facet" model, where the surface of the object is in the form of a large number of separate flat areas of simple shape (see Fig. 3).
When calculating the EPR large (in wavelengths) complex bodies is essential that the relatively high frequencies can distinguish the individual fragments of the structure of objects, which in this perspective, the main contributors to the formation of scattered field. This makes it possible to perform calculations for these scattering centers independently, if necessary, taking into account their mutual influence on subsequent stages. The accuracy of calculating the characteristics of the scattering centers is of particular importance in the analysis of subtle details, so great attention has been given to the development and improvement of relevant electrodynamic models. Classical model of this kind is considered a wedge (edge). In this model, infinite boundaries are accounted for using the results of a physical theory of diffraction, and the fields and currents in a finite region of space near the edge are defined by solving the equations of the electromagnetic field. Select individual scattering centers can also analyze specific diffraction phenomenon peculiar to this structure, and identify their dependence on a small number of local parameters.
role of numerical methods exclusively large when the characteristic size of the fragments of the object is much larger than the wavelength, but because of the complexity of the diffraction process high-frequency approximation do not provide the desired accuracy. Such a fragment, creating the main contribution to the scattered field in the forward hemisphere plane intake is the power install the system blade inlet of the engine. Using the hybrid approach allows to consider whether the passage of electromagnetic waves via the air intake and diffraction on a system of blades. However, the calculation of the scattering wave at the inlet of the engine having a transverse dimension of tens of wavelength and consisting of many elements of complex shapes - the independent task that requires the use of rigorous methods and their effective numerical implementation. The developed software allows you to perform the appropriate calculations with sufficient accuracy (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4. Model inlet plane (a) and diagram of the effective surface scattering intake (b)
Comparison calculated and experimental data shows good accuracy of the software
creating an adequate electrodynamic model such a complex object like an airplane, requires a combination of methods of Radiophysics, electrodynamics, computational mathematics, signal processing. In result of extensive experience in programming and computational tasks of the technology effective use of modern computing technology. In particular, the importance of the integration of specialized software products: the computational core, designed to determine scattering properties, and engineering systems design, through which the transfer of design documentation (electronically) Preparation and modification of data on the form, structure, facility, the analysis output. Widespread system of AutoCAD, from which the data are transferred in electromagnetic simulation models through a special interface.
In the short term progress in the development of methods for calculating the scattering properties of complex systems is largely due to good organization works to raise the necessary specialists, good information and technical support, since it seems to us, many fundamental issues that existed previously in this area have been resolved.
inflicted on the various elements aircraft radio-absorbing coating differ from those used 10-15 years ago. Modern coatings have variable thickness along the profile, complex structure with varying values of permittivity and permeability both in thickness (normal to the surface) and along the surface sheathing. Solving the fundamental problems associated with the passage of an electromagnetic wave through a heterogeneous environment, studying the behavior of heterogeneous mixtures near the percolation threshold, the researchers learned how to create a substance with any frequency behavior of the real and imaginary parts of permittivity, Naturally, under the principle of the Kramers-Kronig relations. Creating materials with an arbitrary behavior of the magnetic permeability is associated with some additional constraints. Modern Designer, optimizing the EPR of a fragment of the plane and choosing for this purpose, the dielectric and magnetic permeability substance, the distribution of its thickness over the surface of the fragment can be sure that the technology in the future will reproduce the desired settings. Note also that an appropriate optimization requires significant prior experience, because of the need continuously to find a compromise between the desire to obtain the minimum reflection, the thickness of the material, its strength and, finally, the aerodynamic properties of the fragment.
For application coatings are used completely different technology. Most of the surface plane is covered by paint technology. Despite the apparent simplicity, this technique is most responsible, because of its quality depends on the contribution to the ESR of one of the key elements of the scattering plane - its air intake, In addition, the violation of coating adhesion in the air intake can lead to a plane crash. Multilayer coating radioabsorbing sprayed with as robotic systems for serial production of aircraft, or manually when you create experimental models of equipment.
daunting goal is the production of fine ferromagnetic fillers with the given values of magnetic permeability. Currently, applying specific technology, we can fairly wide range, changing the spectra of ferromagnetic fillers in the microwave region. Combining the ferromagnetic inclusions with inclusions of other types, create the desired set of broadband radar absorbing coatings. Their further development is impossible without solving many fundamental issues.
The first step is to study in detail the factors that determine the value of the permeability of fine particles and thin magnetic films, which constitute the basis for a radar absorbing coatings. These factors include: the effect of mechanical stresses that form the magnetostriction of the samples; effect of small amounts of ferromagnetic materials, resulting in a change in its magnetic anisotropy; flow at high frequencies, the relaxation processes in the created structures, characterized by the damping parameter in the Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert. In some cases, improve the radio-absorbing coating may be using ferromagnetic conductive particles of very small size. However, in this way appear two principal obstacles: first, these particles become piroformnymi (probably - pyrophoric - VV ), and secondly, they could not enter with a sufficiently high density of the liquid polymer matrix due to increased adsorption capacity with decreasing particle size. This well-known chemical problem to still not resolved.
Compact Under Sink Dishwasher
FUNDAMENTAL AND APPLIED PROBLEMS
Technology processes of manufacture and assembly of the aircraft must provide the minimum clearances between the elements and units, located on the outer surface: doors, hatch covers, etc. A complex technological challenge is to create besperepletnogo cockpit canopy to exclude connective Arc, degrades the characteristics of the visibility plane.
To provide a low radar visibility of the aircraft, widely used plasma technologies, especially plasma-vacuum, with which to create the scattering coating on the lamp cockpit. Normal windows folding lamp is transparent to electromagnetic waves, so if the electromagnetic wave is incident on a plane from the upper hemisphere, hollow cabin makes significant contribution to the ESR of the observation angles. One solution to the problem of low radar visibility plane is fairly obvious: Metallizing glazed cabin. Reflected from the metallized lamp electromagnetic wave will not be returned to the radar receiver, to be rather, the value of the ESR cab, averaged over some small sector of angles of observation, significantly reduced. However, the metallization should not worsen optical properties of glass cockpit, which imposed extremely stringent requirements. Thus, the reflection coefficient of glass lantern Cabin in the microwave should be close to unity, and in the optical - to zero. But in this case the requirements for coverage, not exhausted. There is a problem overheating pilot in the cockpit, used in tropical countries. Power conditioning in the cabins of many foreign aircraft, however, as and a number of our people, not enough for a comfortable state of the pilot, therefore, requires certain steps for the selection of the infrared spectrum.
Generally speaking, This problem arises in the creation of selective energy-saving glass in the construction industry. At the Institute of Theoretical and Applied Electrodynamics RAS proposed and patented the so-called energy-saving glass. They are produced in large vacuum chambers, where the glass surface is applied multi-layer coating by magnetron (probably - magnetron - VV ), sputtering. To achieve the best optical, infrared and microwave characteristics are used coatings consisting of alternating films of various metals and their oxides thickness of approximately 100 A. Abroad, established powerful industry of manufacture of such glasses in Russia, mass production, usually based on the export (probably - Import - VV ), equipment.
However, folding of the canopy all aircraft made not of glass, polymer, and, moreover, its surface has double curvature. Polymer base canopy pilots periodically subjected to strain. For materials scientists involved in the process of spraying, the technological challenge of essentially reduced to the deposition of thin hard coating thickness in fractions of micrometers ... a soccer ball with the requirement of durability of this thin coverage. We all know that during the game thin film on the surface of the ball covered with countless number of cracks. Nevertheless, this problem could be solved by magnetron sputtering in a vacuum metal to produce metallic island films. These films are alternated with polymer layers caused by Plasma-chemical method. The quality of multilayer coatings can be significantly improved if they are understood and predicted by the end of many plasma- reactions occurring during the deposition of polymer films in low-temperature plasma discharge.
It is well known that by changing the discharge regime and composition of hydrocarbon and fluorinated gases, which burn level, we can obtain a wide range of properties of the deposited film - from the polycrystalline diamond to the polymer. And although we do not have complete fundamental knowledge in this field, developed a stable plasma-chemical technologies, implemented in a large vacuum chamber with a volume of 22 m 3 with a pressure of 4 x 10 -5 mmHg The camera is equipped with a computer-controlled robot, which moves the magnetron, and computer-controlled gas inlet system and discharge control. In this chamber, and coated on a variety of optically transparent airplane parts.
To reduce the ESR aircraft under the supervision of its rear hemisphere is first necessary to reduce the ESR cavity of the engine exhaust nozzle. In addition to special affirmative action, which must be provided for the establishment of new engines, effective application of radar absorbing coatings found on the elements exhaust nozzle. The only material capable of withstanding both the temperature (1200 ° C) and mechanical stress typical for this part engine, is ceramics. Developed multi-layer ceramic coating is deposited on the weekend engine components by applying melted microparticles dielectric and metal or semiconductor plasma arc discharge burning at atmospheric pressure. The main difficulty that had to be overcome - the creation of high adhesion between the relatively thick layers of metal-ceramic and metal surface. As is known, ceramics and metal core aircraft structure have significantly different coefficients of thermal expansion. In addition, the temperature at which the coating must maintain radiophysical their properties vary over a very wide range - from 600 to 1200 ° C. Thus, it was necessary to develop materials, dielectric and magnetic permeability which should not be changed in a wide temperature range. This problem is partially solved: motors with radio absorbing ceramic coatings are on board the aircraft and tested in various flight regimes.
The fundamental problem is to reduce reflection from the nose fairing aircraft. Due to the fact that under the dome is a system of radar, but because it is often the system of units with equipment, providing the antenna, contribution to the antenna unit in the ER aircraft can greatly exceed the contribution of all other elements of its design. In that case, if the mirror antenna is directed orthogonally to the line locator, the EPR may reach several tens or more square feet. This means that all the other tricks that were invented to reduce the radar visibility of the aircraft, become meaningless. However, if you turn the mirror of the antenna, pointing it, for example, up can significantly alter the EPR along the axial direction.
This - a trivial and well-known solution, and it is widely used. But in some cases, this procedure is not effective enough.
proposed several solutions to this problem. We consider only those associated with the use of controlled screens, the more so because such screens can be used on new aircraft and the modernization of existing ones. Let's start with the version that appears most straightforward in terms of technical solutions.
deposited on the inner surface of the fairing radiotransparent semiconductor film, arranged so that under the action of the optical or ultraviolet radiation, it can change the conductivity by many orders of magnitude. Then, putting under the fairing of the sources of optical radiation (Fig. 5 a), we might, depending on our desire to translate the surface of the fairing of the state, fully transparent to microwaves, fully reflecting the state, if the impact of radiation sources that are above the dome, the conductivity reaches high values. Metallized fairing will reflect the incident electromagnetic wave at him, and his ESR for observation angles other than from orthogonal to the axis of the aircraft will be low. Naturally, at that time own radar aircraft can not work.
 | Fig. 5. circuit the reflection of electromagnetic waves from the fairing with the semiconductor driven shield (a), the change in resistance of semiconductor films depending on the light (b) scheme and the reflection of electromagnetic waves from the dome with controlled screen (a) On the chart: the dark rectangle corresponds to the conductivity of the films, ensuring the transparency of the screen, a gray box - the level of conductivity, providing surface metallization PLF-1 - the resistance of existing semiconductor films, 2 - the resistance of the hypothetical film, which will implement the idea of a semiconductor Managed screen |
Generally speaking, the resistance of semiconductor doped films CdSn or CdS varies by many orders of magnitude at quite a reasonable level of illumination (curve 1 in Fig. 5, b). However, they are not suitable for the implementation of the above technical solutions. Necessary the film with other dynamic properties (curve 2 in Fig. 5, b), but as they do not yet very clear.
Another technical solution - installing front radar screen, on the surface of which there are so-called frequency-selective structures - a system of periodic openings of some form, configured in such a way that they are free to pass in both directions, an electromagnetic wave in a narrow band of natural frequencies of radar and fully отражают электромагнитные волны других частот. Вводя в эти специальным образом организованные отверстия, которые, по существу, представляют собой открытые резонаторы, управляющие полупроводниковые системы, можно при желании "закрыть" экран, сделав его непрозрачным для всех частот.
Проблеме частотно-селективных surfaces is an extensive literature from which we can draw conclusions about the peculiarities of their application. We have developed numerical methods for calculating the frequency-selective screens, possess the appropriate technology and produced a working model of managed screens. Depending on the specific design of the antenna can be used as a frequency-selective screen and plasma. It is mounted inside the fairing the same way as the frequency-selective screen, but it принцип действия несколько другой. При отсутствии сигнала управления, который может подаваться пилотом самолета или его станцией обнаружения внешнего exposure, the screen turned off and transparent at all frequencies. When the signal goes to the screen voltage is applied, it ignited the low-temperature collisional plasma, as a result of the radiation is partially reflected from the screen in the directions shown in Figure 5, and is partially absorbed in the screen. The screen is effective для электромагнитного излучения всех частот, меньше плазменной. Значение плазменной частоты в таких системах может быть очень большим. Многолетние исследования processes occurring in low-temperature plasma, allowed to find optimal parameters for gas composition, plasma generators, and optimize high-speed system of plasma generation needed to respond to rapidly changing external environment. Flight tests demonstrate the high efficiency of the proposed decisions aimed at reducing the radar visibility of the antenna cover.
control so many radio physical and electrical parameters individual layers that make up the coating, and the optimization results of individual fragments of the aircraft is carried out in the radio-physical experiments. To study the macroscopic parameters of the substances, the behavior of frequency dispersion of dielectrics, ferromagnetic materials, fine particles, made from ferromagnetic alloys, semi-thin island films used laboratory equipment, which must satisfy all the requirements of the modern physical laboratories in the electrodynamics of continuous media. In addition, special Materials Research and Chemical Equipment designed to study the properties of the composites.
Fragments of the aircraft covered with radar absorbing and dispersing coatings investigated in the so-called anechoic chambers. In these simulated conditions, realized in the space of the real situation, when which an object falls flat electromagnetic wave, and no reflections from the underlying surface. Creating anechoic chamber with a low noise requires skilful work skills which Russian scientists speak in such a degree that exporters of these cameras in industrialized countries. After as the main fragments of the aircraft will be tested in an anechoic chamber, introduced the amendment process, if necessary, and shall complete technological cycle of work on the aircraft. In the process it is the continuous monitoring of Radio.
All of the above technological developments implemented in our country, and in advanced foreign countries. Demonstrate the global trend of radar visibility of supersonic maneuverable aircraft (Fig. 6). If in the 1980's aircraft such as F-15 had ESR greater than 10 m 2 then modernized aviation system EPR is 1-1.5 m 2 , and a promising fifth-generation aircraft systems, such as the F-22, JSF, - 0.3 m 2 . Still lower value of the EPR in a modernized national MiG-21.
| Fig. 6. Trends in radar visibility of supersonic aircraft |  |
Interventions to reduce the visibility of the aircraft to be agreed with the opportunities and requirements of electronic countermeasures. Reducing visibility, of course, reduces the power consumption of electronic countermeasures, but more importantly, the use of subtle means of electronic countermeasures aircraft provides a significant advantage in the air.
In foreign literature You can find estimates of the probability of loss of aircraft depending on the EPR (Fig. 7). Decrease in ESR to 10-15 m 2 - values typical of the heavy fighters of the fourth generation of up to 0.3 m 2 can fundamentally reduce the losses of aircraft in combat. This effect is enhanced if simultaneously with the aircraft, having a low ESR, apply modern means of electronic countermeasures (Fig. 8).
 | Fig. 7. loss of the aircraft in overcoming the defense, depending on their effective surface scattering |
| Fig. 8. Effect of joint use of radar counteract and reduce radar visibility for the loss of aircraft |  |
should be remembered that at the first stage of construction new aircraft, you must decide whether we are prepared to put as the problem number 1 is possible to obtain a small value of ESR at the expense of many other properties of the aircraft or shall we endeavor to keep up the good aerodynamics in achieving a low level of its radar visibility. Examples of the first approach - This aircraft the F-117 and B-2, whose shape is optimized to achieve low ESR at the expense of their aerodynamic properties, examples of the second approach - it's a plane F-22 JSF and several others.
Obviously, when you create a new aircraft with low ESR are required design-technological measures to optimize form of an airplane: To ensure a smooth transition between the elements of the airframe, the exclusion of external load of weapons - carry weapons inside the fuselage. In turn, This requires longitudinal stiffness fuselage input into the construction of additional hydro units, security start-up and discharge of weapons, and even change targeting algorithm.
One of the technological methods that reduce the visibility of the aircraft - the use of large panels of complex forms as elements of fuselage (Fig. 9). Having established such a panel can significantly reduce the number of joints of casings on the surface of the aircraft and the number of riveted and bolted joints, which are elements reflected in the forward hemisphere at various angles.
After performing all the activities aimed at reducing the radar visibility is required optimization of complex avionics. Unmasking symptoms caused by his work, become significant at background of low radar visibility plane. Minimization of operating time on-board equipment in raioelektronnogo radar radiation, the use of bistatic radar mode. Wanted covert methods of communication for aircraft that are in the group. Two aircraft are in pairs, and one of them emits a signal, while the second operates in passive mode and can not be detected by the locator of the enemy. Using computational capabilities of the onboard equipment, maps and a variety of other methods allows radio silence to determine the position of the aircraft and combat missions.
is necessary to ensure the effectiveness of all the activities. Naturally, the most objective criterion of efficiency would participate in a real conflict, which, fortunately, in recent years trying to avoid most of the countries. But the process of test aircraft from the point of research on their radar visibility is required and has a number of specific features. Detection probability is proportional EPR is a statistical measure and depends on many factors, including weather conditions and, naturally, the plane off course with respect to radar.
flight tests precede the ground, when conducted surveillance aircraft from various angles. Ground measurement complex (Fig. 10) allows you to get pie charts of the EPR in a wide range of wavelengths. Measurements can be performed with the engine running, which is important to determine the EPR in the rear hemisphere. There is also an opportunity to assess the contribution of individual elements in the ER aircraft. Then, the EPR plane measured in terms flight with simultaneous evaluation of the detection range. For a set of statistics to a large number of experiments on the ground and in flight. In particular, during works to reduce the radar visibility of the fourth generation aircraft such as Su-27 for a set of statistics, it took more than 100 hours of continuous operation radar stations on the ground and stand over 30 hours - in flight. In some cases, comparisons were paired flights, in which участвовали малозаметный и обычный самолеты.
Рис. 10. Самолет на поворотной платформе наземного измерительного комплекса
Подводя up, we can say that as a result of research and solve a number of fundamental and applied problems stele technology: created computational and experimental methods and complex technologies to reduce the visibility, refined and tested fourth-generation aircraft such as Su-27, proposed radio-absorbing materials that are not inferior in its characteristics best foreign specimens. We believe that this area requires further development to strengthen the country's defense. Stealth technology can be used in aircraft modernization, standing on the arms, and creating advanced aircraft systems.
Tuesday, June 3, 2008
Contest Bottomless Woman
Baltic part of the Waffen-SS
1950
Baltic part of the Waffen-SS (Baltic Legions) are risen to separate from the German SS units, in the Baltic legions had a special purpose, ideology, activities and conditions of membership, so Komisssiya not think this movement is hostile to the Government United States.
The Baltic Waffen SS Units (Baltic Legions) are to be considered as separate and distinct in purpose, ideology, activities, and qualifications for membership from the German SS, and therefore the Commission holds them not to be a movement hostile to the Government of the United States
on meetings SS veterans in 2007
Pastor Alexander's Lutheran Church Narva Vello Yrjo said the Estonians who fought in Hitler's army, "shed their blood for eternal truths."
Estonian Defense Minister Jaak Aaviksoo greets passes in Saturday's gathering of veterans Vaivara 20 th Estonian SS division: "The state needs protection now. Confirmation what are the recent events in Estonia, "- said the minister, pointing to the past in late April riots caused by the transfer of the monument to Soviet soldiers. Defense Minister SS Division veterans compared with participants in the liberation war of 1918-1920, during which independence was secured Estonia.
"For the participants of the Second World War, fought in the German army, it was the second liberation war for our independence"
- treatment Minister of Defence of Estonia Aaviksoo to rally SS veterans. [20]
1950
Baltic part of the Waffen-SS (Baltic Legions) are risen to separate from the German SS units, in the Baltic legions had a special purpose, ideology, activities and conditions of membership, so Komisssiya not think this movement is hostile to the Government United States.
The Baltic Waffen SS Units (Baltic Legions) are to be considered as separate and distinct in purpose, ideology, activities, and qualifications for membership from the German SS, and therefore the Commission holds them not to be a movement hostile to the Government of the United States
on meetings SS veterans in 2007
Pastor Alexander's Lutheran Church Narva Vello Yrjo said the Estonians who fought in Hitler's army, "shed their blood for eternal truths."
Estonian Defense Minister Jaak Aaviksoo greets passes in Saturday's gathering of veterans Vaivara 20 th Estonian SS division: "The state needs protection now. Confirmation what are the recent events in Estonia, "- said the minister, pointing to the past in late April riots caused by the transfer of the monument to Soviet soldiers. Defense Minister SS Division veterans compared with participants in the liberation war of 1918-1920, during which independence was secured Estonia.
"For the participants of the Second World War, fought in the German army, it was the second liberation war for our independence"
- treatment Minister of Defence of Estonia Aaviksoo to rally SS veterans. [20]
Monday, June 2, 2008
How To Hack A Mobile Broadband Dongle
Andrew Medardovich Zajaczkowski
since the Civil War, the Bolsheviks created the institution of secret collaborators (informer). Were those among military experts. Typically, recruitment occurred during the arrest, when hunted, and was preparing to be shot or general officer suddenly got the offer to watch their comrades, and regularly communicate about them to be. Of course, when it came to saving lives, many detainees agreed to work on the security agencies. So among which at first glance, the closed caste of military experts came to informers.
since the Civil War, the Bolsheviks created the institution of secret collaborators (informer). Were those among military experts. Typically, recruitment occurred during the arrest, when hunted, and was preparing to be shot or general officer suddenly got the offer to watch their comrades, and regularly communicate about them to be. Of course, when it came to saving lives, many detainees agreed to work on the security agencies. So among which at first glance, the closed caste of military experts came to informers.
One such famous secret among employees of the old generals was, according to the authors Help , in the 60 years engaged in rehabilitation Tukhachevsky and its surroundings, outstanding military scientist Andrew Medardovich Zajaczkowski.
According to them, Zajaczkowski was a secret agent of the Cheka-OGPU in 1921, and his daughter from 1922 to 1937 (Military Archives of Russia. - M., 1993. - Issue 1. - S. 101). In addition, in this paper figure names OGPU agents of the former Lieutenant-General Dyakonov, Serebrennikov (probably - Ivan Konstantinovich, Major-General), De Robertis (probably - Nikolai Alexandrovich, a former lieutenant colonel), Zuev (maybe we are talking about Shostakovich, former colonel), Ovsyannikov (?).
Help Tukhachevsky with a detailed story of secret collaborators and informants Cheka-OGPU among military experts, prepared in 1964, raises so many questions. The fact that in the 60 years of the Rehabilitation of Repressed involved in an emergency mode, without much deeper into the issues. Such inquiries were preparing for a quick hand, and upon closer inspection, contain inaccuracies and contradictions of the sea. Of course, it is possible that Zajaczkowski, as a Pole, during the massacres of Poles - the generals and officers - in 1920, was forced to serve a taboo in the Cheka. Judging throughout, he continued to engage in "Polish Line", under the control of the Cheka and OGPU maintained ties with ekzekutivoy - intelligence Pilsudski. "Knock" if Andrew Medardovich on their colleagues - this is a very big question.
But as a secret agent among the former generals was his daughter, Olga Andreyevna Zayonchkovskaya (According to her husband - Popova). She maintained close friendships with his cousin, a former colonel and prominent military commander, NE Kakurina, General Staff brothers Gatovskimi, De Lazaro, Sologub and others. From 1922 to 1937 Zayonchkovskaya using loud the name of his father, worked into the credibility of a major Soviet military, collecting all the gossip and then transfer it all to the OGPU.
Apparently, in the history of repressive military experts in the late 20's - early 30-ies of OA Zayonchkovskaya played a major role. Apparently, the eminent former generals and officers she was "herding" from the date of his recruitment. The above-mentioned journal Military Archives of Russia " provides undercover message from 21.02.1927, on alleged "copying" memories AA Brusilov after his death, former generals, AE Snesarev, VN Gatovskim, Admiral Dolivo-Dobrovolsky. (Military Archives of Russia. - M., 1993. - Issue 1. - S. 394.) Informant, not named in the material, the story ssylaets VN Gatovskogo, which Zayonchkovskaya exactly was in close friendships. Rather, it is the same informant, knocked on the future of the main characters of "Spring" in 1927.
However, by my count, at least another four prominent military experts were secret members of the Cheka-OGPU. Most likely, they also have made hand to the mass arrests 1930-1931 period.
http://www.tuad.nsk.ru/ ~ history/Author/Russ/T/TimchenkoJaJu/golgofa/razd1-2.html
One of the first March 26, 1929, was arrested a member of the Board weapons-arsenal of trust, a former Major-General NG Vysochansky, then, during April - May caught the other managers and staff management. Unfortunately, it is unknown how many of those were convicted of conspiracy in the case of the Main Department of Military Industry. But, at least five of his "leaders" were shot on Oct. 21, 1929: Former major-general NG Vysochansky, Assistant Chief of the military administration, former Major General, S. Mikhailov, Board member Vohimtresta former Maj. Gen. VN Dehaene, a board member Chuck-pipe trust a former major general VL Dymman, head of science and technology Bureau of arms and machine-gun trust a former Lieutenant-General N. Shulga. (Death list. - M., 1995. - Vol. 2. - Vagankovskoye cemetery. Pp. 37-38.)
some time later, namely, in January 1930, was arrested on a number of staff the Chief of Military Industry. Two of them, deputy chairman of the scientific and technical Board Vohimtresta former Maj. Gen. BK Kornilovich and assistant director of the plant Vohimtresta NM Shafrov, 23 September 1930 and were shot on charges wrecking and all of the same counter. (Death list. - M., 1995. - Vol. 2. - Vagankovskoye cemetery. - P. 82.)
**** It was in this period, negotiations with Germany USSR stated the failure of many collaborative programs. Especially - the creation of machine-gun and production CWA .***
According to our calculations, based on reports from various emigre publications in the 20's have returned home 20 white generals: NS Anisimov (in 1924 from Harbin), YF Voloshinov, GK Gravitsky, SK Dobrorolsky, EI DOSTOVALOV IE Zelenin, P. Ivanov, Rhinow, I. Klochkov (Donets), A. Milkovsky, EA Mironov, Ants, raids, and AA Noskov, V. Ostrogradsky, Rudakov (orenburzhets) Savvateev (Donets) A. secrets (Donets), YA sweeter NT bitch, Tundutov.
**************************!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
In 1923, the percentage of Whites in the ranks of former Red Army was very high. In particular, it is clearly seen on the "List of persons with higher military education ... in the Red Army" in 1923. Total list is 454 General Staff, including graduates at the time academy for 2 category. 93 people or more than 20 percent, were military, the Red Army from the whites and the national armies in 1920-1922. Of these, various white formations of Siberia previously served as General Staff in 1923 (including 10 generals), in the Volunteer and Cossack armies - 35 (including 12 generals), national Armies of the Caucasus and other - 35 (including 11 generals ). (List of persons with higher military education ... in the Red Army ".- M., 1923.)
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !
After 1920 eldest of remaining in the Soviet Russian officers Finland Regiment was Colonel VV de Gervais , who decided at any cost to preserve the bonds of friendship with their brother-soldiers. Some Finns have lived in Leningrad, the other mainly from serving in the Red Army were scattered throughout the country. Gervais went on a visit to his companions, had corresponded with them. For example, in 1924, he visit schools to improve teacher commanders "shot", Colonel General Staff, VK Golovkin (GASBU, OP, d. 67093, v. 37 (3149), it Olderogge VA, Golovkin VK testimony, pp. 25). In 1930, Gervais was a guest and the other his brother-soldier - a former captain of the General Staff VV Sergeyev - one of the main accused in the case of "Spring". Younger brother Sergeyev also Finn, with the remnants of Regiment and the regimental banner of the fight with the Reds in the Civil War and then emigrated to France.
also visited by de Gervais and returned from exile famous white Gen. Yakov Aleksandrovich Slaschova-Crimean - up to 1917 also served in the Life Guards regiment of Finland. Naturally, the flurry of activity Colonel de Gervais irritates the OGPU and its provedyvanie Slaschova decided the fate of many of the remaining Finns in the Soviet Union. In early 1927, in Leningrad a group of former officers of the Life Guard Finland Regiment led by Colonel de Gervais was arrested. (GASBU, OP, d. 67093, ie 88 (67), it Besyadovskogo KI, pp. 67.) Slaschova, Golovkin and Sergeeva, OGPU has not yet been touched, but increased them for observation.
Along with the arrest of former Finns in Leningrad, were arrested and other officers associated with them. In particular, the summer of 1927 the OGPU hit teachers Military-Political Academy : former colonel Valentin Pavlovich Diaghilev and the captain Eugene P. Ilyin, and their wives. March 24, 1928 Diaghilev was sentenced to death with the replacement of ten years imprisonment, others - three years in exile. (GASBU, OP, d. 67093, ie 240 (3159), it counter-revolutionary groups in the Military-Political Academy, pp. 200-204.)
*******************One of the first March 26, 1929, was arrested a member of the Board weapons-arsenal of trust, a former Major-General NG Vysochansky, then, during April - May caught the other managers and staff management. Unfortunately, it is unknown how many of those were convicted of conspiracy in the case of the Main Department of Military Industry. But, at least five of his "leaders" were shot on Oct. 21, 1929: Former major-general NG Vysochansky, Assistant Chief of the military administration, former Major General, S. Mikhailov, Board member Vohimtresta former Maj. Gen. VN Dehaene, a board member Chuck-pipe trust a former major general VL Dymman, head of science and technology Bureau of arms and machine-gun trust a former Lieutenant-General N. Shulga. (Death list. - M., 1995. - Vol. 2. - Vagankovskoye cemetery. Pp. 37-38.)
some time later, namely, in January 1930, was arrested on a number of staff the Chief of Military Industry. Two of them, deputy chairman of the scientific and technical Board Vohimtresta former Maj. Gen. BK Kornilovich and assistant director of the plant Vohimtresta NM Shafrov, 23 September 1930 and were shot on charges wrecking and all of the same counter. (Death list. - M., 1995. - Vol. 2. - Vagankovskoye cemetery. - P. 82.)
**** It was in this period, negotiations with Germany USSR stated the failure of many collaborative programs. Especially - the creation of machine-gun and production CWA .***
first arrests the Artillery officers management began in the summer of 1929, one of the first assistant was arrested a member of the Artillery Committee, a former lieutenant colonel, AS Barablin, which supported business contacts with the Central Artillery workshops. With him, as well as other previously arrested gunners nachals unwind a ball of "wrecking counter-revolutionary activities "in the Ordnance Department.
leaders of the conspiracy under the version of the OGPU were considered as the Red Army artillery officer, former colonel VD Grendal, Chief Artillery Directorate of the last general YM Scheidemann and his aides - Colonel A. Dzerzhkovich and Dmitriev. (GASBU, OP, d. 67093, ie 267, it counter-revolutionary group of engineering management WPRA, the letter S. Gnedich, pp. 124; GASBU, OP, d. 67093, v. 14, Leningrad Affair, pp. 76.)
During November 1929 - February In 1930 were arrested almost all the staff of artillery inspection, management and scientific committee. Ten of them headed by the assistant to the chairman Artillery Committee, a former colonel in VR Ruppeneytom October 20, 1930 were executed. (Death list. - M., 1995. - Vol. 2. - Vagankovskoye cemetery. - S. 99-101.) Dzerzhkovich and Dmitriev received various prison terms, while the fate of a prominent Russian artillery YM Scheidemann, unfortunately, is unknown.
interesting noted that, despite this enormous at the time the shooting, several employees of Ordnance Department were even released. Was released and one of those on a scenario drawn up by investigators, was one of the main conspirators - VD Grendal, then participated in the Second World War and died in Moscow in 1940 with the rank of colonel-general of artillery. Why are they so lucky? As is evident from the letter of the employee of Engineering Management SV Gnedich, arrested in the case of "Spring", during interrogations in order to break him, investigators have shown the case "repentant" and released, and is not repentant, "and shot gunners. That, they say, look - they were honest in the service of Soviet power. However, to this letter, we shall return. But the letter Gnedich eloquent, Some military experts of the Ordnance Department have been recruited and then "knocking" on their own is not collared companions.
Another thread of "counter-revolutionary Activity in the medium artillery reached at the Military Academy of Red Army. Here on Dec. 23, 1929 was arrested, and August 17, 1930 shot lecturer artillery, a former colonel, MG Popov.
So at the beginning of 1921 the Red Army only served 14,390 generals and officers of the various White armies . The vast majority of these were the commanding cadres surrendered in 1920 in Siberia Kolchak troops in the North Caucasus - Kuban Army and some parts of the Don, near Odessa and Novorossiysk - Denikin compounds.
According to our calculations, based on reports from various emigre publications in the 20's have returned home 20 white generals: NS Anisimov (in 1924 from Harbin), YF Voloshinov, GK Gravitsky, SK Dobrorolsky, EI DOSTOVALOV IE Zelenin, P. Ivanov, Rhinow, I. Klochkov (Donets), A. Milkovsky, EA Mironov, Ants, raids, and AA Noskov, V. Ostrogradsky, Rudakov (orenburzhets) Savvateev (Donets) A. secrets (Donets), YA sweeter NT bitch, Tundutov.
**************************!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
In 1923, the percentage of Whites in the ranks of former Red Army was very high. In particular, it is clearly seen on the "List of persons with higher military education ... in the Red Army" in 1923. Total list is 454 General Staff, including graduates at the time academy for 2 category. 93 people or more than 20 percent, were military, the Red Army from the whites and the national armies in 1920-1922. Of these, various white formations of Siberia previously served as General Staff in 1923 (including 10 generals), in the Volunteer and Cossack armies - 35 (including 12 generals), national Armies of the Caucasus and other - 35 (including 11 generals ). (List of persons with higher military education ... in the Red Army ".- M., 1923.)
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !
completely different contingent re-emigrants were former ranks of so-called non-ferrous parts of the Volunteer Army - alekseevtsy and Markov. Denikin, Wrangel and then the Markov Division and Alekseevskii regiment along with Kornilovites and drozdovtsami considered the most selective White Guard forces. Therefore, to return home Representatives of these groups looked more than suspicious. Moreover, returning something is not fine grades: two generals, one colonel, at least a dozen two officers.
best known in this category has been re-emigrants, Major-General Yuri Konstantinovich Gravitsky, Party Ice campaign, in 1919-1920 commanded Consolidated-Rifle Regiment in Gallipoli Alekseevskii led the regiment. He pervopohodnik, one of the first white volunteers, due to their previous activities could not this way from the bay, suddenly struggling sincerely love the Soviet regime. Moreover, even in the summer of 1921, when Gravitsky was abroad, the red exploration referred to him as a member of the restorative team, headed by Commander Gen. Kutepov volunteer units, which included the commanders of all color parts (Russian military emigration 20-x - 40-ies, Sat dock. - M., 1998. - T. 2. - p. 57.)
And how Gravitsky has come to return home? It may well be that Yuri Konstantinovich был направлен белогвардейским командованием в Советскую Россию для налаживани подпольной работы. Известно, что инициатором такой деятельности был генерал Kutepov and Gravitsky was not only his subordinates but also close comrades.
to repentance Yuri Konstantinovich was like the truth, in Gallipoli it "stained" reputation, made an investigation of one, in general, there is little standing operation spring of 1920, which resulted in Gravitskogo found guilty some omissions. Because of this, is June 5, 1921 YK Gravitsky was relieved of his command Alekseevskii regiment. (Partisan General Alexeyev Regiment / Pervopohodnik. - 1974. - № 21 .- C.46.)
Now Yuri Konstantinovich "with a clear conscience," went to the Soviet Repatriation Commission. Certainly deserved such a drastic repainting White General aroused some suspicion among the Bolsheviks, but despite this, Gravitsky still went home. Together with Yuri Konstantinovich rows of white the army had left and his co-workers: Maj. Gen. E. Zelenin and Colonel D. Zhitkevich.
Generals Gravitsky Zelenin and settled in Moscow, Zhitkevich went home on Chernihiv region. Yuri Konstantinovich well settled - was a fireman of the USSR Supreme Economic Council. By this time in Moscow were a lot of former white, including the ranks of non-ferrous parts. All, naturally, they talked between themselves, and ... maintained relations with the "leadership" - veterans of Ice campaign, the eldest of whom is just a Gravitsky. About this gave interesting testimony of former cadet 2 of Moscow Cadet Corps volunteer and the Life-Guards Cossack regiment of white VS Lebedev, arrested in the case of "Spring": "fragmentary conversations with the listed members of the organization (ex-Cadets - Prim. J. T .) led me to believe that in the case Open performance management members of the organization is mainly calculated on the former white officers, especially the participants of the first hikes (Ice, Steppenwolf, etc.). Also pointed to the former white Cossack officers ". (GASBU, OP, d. 67093, ie 3708, a collection of testimonies of members of the Moscow counter-revolutionary organizations, testimony Lebedev VS, pp. 81.)
course, for Yuri Konstantinovich and other former white closely monitored bodies OGPU. But what exactly was the last straw for the start of yesterday's mayhem Whites, I can not say.
Thursday, May 29, 2008
Tennessee Aircraft Sales Tax
June 21, 1941, Stalin's office ...
In "Red Star» (№ 104) was published an excerpt from diary Marshal SM Budyonny "Stalin: The Germans may attack us tomorrow ...", which aroused great interest history buffs. But some of our readers have expressed doubts about the veracity of the fact of Stalin's conversations with military leaders on June 21 on the theme of the upcoming attack Germany on the USSR. To ensure credibility of the deceased marshal, the editors had little historical investigation and found that There are several archival documents confirming the rightness Budyonny.
In "Red Star» (№ 104) was published an excerpt from diary Marshal SM Budyonny "Stalin: The Germans may attack us tomorrow ...", which aroused great interest history buffs. But some of our readers have expressed doubts about the veracity of the fact of Stalin's conversations with military leaders on June 21 on the theme of the upcoming attack Germany on the USSR. To ensure credibility of the deceased marshal, the editors had little historical investigation and found that There are several archival documents confirming the rightness Budyonny. First, save a draft of a secret order CPSU (B) The organization of the Southern Front and the appointment of commanders. In particular, Budyonny was appointed commander of the armies of the second line - with headquarters in Bryansk. The text of the decree, as it turned out, written by Secretary of the CC, GM Malenkov, 21 June 1941. In Soviet times it was kept in the so-called "special folder" - documents the highest secrecy.
Secondly, there is a magazine visit IV Stalin in his Kremlin office. A careful researcher will find in it a lot interesting information. For example, June 19, Stalin took only four people. From evening until half past midnight, he spoke with Defense Commissar SK Timoshenko, Chief of Staff, GK Zhukov, commander of the Air Force, PF Zhigareva, as well as chairman of the Defense Committee in the People's Commissars of the USSR KE Voroshilov, not null trust the leader and after the dismissal of the People's Commissar of Defence. June 20 he went alone Zhigarev - from 23.45 to 0.45. One can understand that on the eve of the war Stalin was very worried aviation issues.
the last peaceful day, according to records from June 21, in the office of the governor visited 10 people. At 18.27 it went to People's Commissar for Foreign Minister VM Molotov. At 5.19 to Joseph Vissarionovich come - the next is indicated by the magazine - KE Voroshilov, Commissar of the Interior, LP Beria, the chairman of Gosplan USSR NA Voznesensky, secretary of the GM Malenkov, Commissar of the Navy NG Kuznetsov, SK Timoshenko. In
20.15 Voznesensky, Kuznetsov and Tymoshenko left office. But after 35 minutes (20.50) Tymoshenko once again went to Stalin - now accompanied by GK Zhukov and Deputy Defense Commissar SM Budyonny. At 21.55 in the room went Commissar State Control LZ Mehlis. At 22.20, a half hour conversation, and captains - Timoshenko, Zhukov, Budyonny - leaving Stalin's office. With them came Malenkov and Mehlis. Recent study of the leader left, Molotov, Voroshilov, Beria. The clock was 23.00. Judging from the log book, they, along with Stalin, participated in making the last pre-war decisions of the Soviet leadership.
The next morning, when it became known that Nazi Germany began to invade USSR, Stalin in his office in 5.45 gathered Molotov, Beria, Timoshenko, Mehlis, and Zhukov. But that's another story ...
Resolution
Politburo of the CPSU (b)
the organization of the Southern Front and the appointment of commanders
I
1. To organize the Southern Front in the two armies to the seat of the Military Council in Vinnitsa.
2. Commander of the Southern Front to appoint so Tuleneva, while leaving behind him the post of commander of the MBO.
3. Member of the Military Council of the Southern Front to appoint so plows.
II
view is seconded Zaporozhtsya member of the Military Council of the Southern Front, assign that Mehlis's head General Directorate of political propaganda of the Red Army to preserve his position of Commissar of State Control.
III
1. Appointed commander of the armies of the second line is Budyonny.
2. Member of the Military Council of the armies of the second line to designate the Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU (b) that Malenkov.
3. Instruct the People's Commissar of Defense that Tymoshenko and the commander of the armies of the second line is Budyonny organize headquarters, with its seat in Bryansk.
IV
instructed to beg. General Staff Zhukov is the general management of South-western and southern fronts, on the spot.
V
instructed that Meretskov overall management of the northern front, on the spot.
VI
appoint members Military Council of the Northern Front Secretary of the Leningrad City Committee of the CPSU (b) T. Kuznetsova.
Secondly, there is a magazine visit IV Stalin in his Kremlin office. A careful researcher will find in it a lot interesting information. For example, June 19, Stalin took only four people. From evening until half past midnight, he spoke with Defense Commissar SK Timoshenko, Chief of Staff, GK Zhukov, commander of the Air Force, PF Zhigareva, as well as chairman of the Defense Committee in the People's Commissars of the USSR KE Voroshilov, not null trust the leader and after the dismissal of the People's Commissar of Defence. June 20 he went alone Zhigarev - from 23.45 to 0.45. One can understand that on the eve of the war Stalin was very worried aviation issues.
the last peaceful day, according to records from June 21, in the office of the governor visited 10 people. At 18.27 it went to People's Commissar for Foreign Minister VM Molotov. At 5.19 to Joseph Vissarionovich come - the next is indicated by the magazine - KE Voroshilov, Commissar of the Interior, LP Beria, the chairman of Gosplan USSR NA Voznesensky, secretary of the GM Malenkov, Commissar of the Navy NG Kuznetsov, SK Timoshenko. In
20.15 Voznesensky, Kuznetsov and Tymoshenko left office. But after 35 minutes (20.50) Tymoshenko once again went to Stalin - now accompanied by GK Zhukov and Deputy Defense Commissar SM Budyonny. At 21.55 in the room went Commissar State Control LZ Mehlis. At 22.20, a half hour conversation, and captains - Timoshenko, Zhukov, Budyonny - leaving Stalin's office. With them came Malenkov and Mehlis. Recent study of the leader left, Molotov, Voroshilov, Beria. The clock was 23.00. Judging from the log book, they, along with Stalin, participated in making the last pre-war decisions of the Soviet leadership.
The next morning, when it became known that Nazi Germany began to invade USSR, Stalin in his office in 5.45 gathered Molotov, Beria, Timoshenko, Mehlis, and Zhukov. But that's another story ...
Politburo of the CPSU (b)
the organization of the Southern Front and the appointment of commanders
special folder on June 21, 1941
1. To organize the Southern Front in the two armies to the seat of the Military Council in Vinnitsa.
2. Commander of the Southern Front to appoint so Tuleneva, while leaving behind him the post of commander of the MBO.
3. Member of the Military Council of the Southern Front to appoint so plows.
view is seconded Zaporozhtsya member of the Military Council of the Southern Front, assign that Mehlis's head General Directorate of political propaganda of the Red Army to preserve his position of Commissar of State Control.
1. Appointed commander of the armies of the second line is Budyonny.
2. Member of the Military Council of the armies of the second line to designate the Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU (b) that Malenkov.
3. Instruct the People's Commissar of Defense that Tymoshenko and the commander of the armies of the second line is Budyonny organize headquarters, with its seat in Bryansk.
instructed to beg. General Staff Zhukov is the general management of South-western and southern fronts, on the spot.
instructed that Meretskov overall management of the northern front, on the spot.
appoint members Military Council of the Northern Front Secretary of the Leningrad City Committee of the CPSU (b) T. Kuznetsova.
Outlet Moncler Milano
Special report PREPARATION OF GERMAN WAR AGAINST THE USSR
Based on the number of tested agents' data, military Preparation of Germany against the Soviet Union in recent years, especially since 25 May, conducted more intensive and is characterized by the following data:
during the second half of May the Germans increased their forces in the 3.2 ng, two armored divisions, "SS", mainly in the area Ostroleka, Prasnysh, Mlawa, Tsehanov. Division "SS" in Suwalki (the data should be checked).
particularly characterized the arrival of artillery pieces, armored units and broneavtomashin.
simultaneously celebrated the arrival of air defense systems, PECVD. For example, in the area of Warsaw - 130 guns PTO, 51-second anti-aircraft artillery regiments; Mlawa - Anti-aircraft division, and division VET.
17.4 in the direction of island (to the line of the state border), followed 165 guns VET, caliber 37 mm.
air defense antitank marked by a number of sources, directly on the state border, in firing positions in the areas of: Suwalki, Olyianka, Malkin, Sokolov, and in depth - Warsaw, Lodz, Grodisk, Deblin.
Delivery of ammunition: 25.4 to the airport Okecie (Warsaw), 63 car bombs were unloaded. In late April, the airport "Sochaczew" delivered 15 cars bombs, some of them presumably of 1000 kg.
13.4 in Warsaw, came to 59 wagons of gunpowder in Rembert - 16 cars, Radom - 12 cars, Sochaczew - 2 cars.
During the period from 9 to 14.5, Warsaw airport were more than 200 aircraft.
At the rate of Kalisz, Lodz, Warsaw, established in 1986 the arrival of aircraft. In Warsaw, concentrated large aviasoedinenie. In Konigsberg - 118 aircraft, some of them dive-bombers.
From 4.29 to 5.21 observed training flights: Allenstein - 317, Danzig - 50, Pillau - 51.
from 12.5 in the Danzig conducted air defense exercises, involving aircraft, coastal artillery and ships.
10.5 from Berlin to Konigsberg arrived early. Staff, 1 st Air Force General von Vulikh.
17.5 he flew to Insterburg.
17.5 flew to Berlin.
15.5 from Warsaw to Königsberg came generals.
17.5 noted the arrival of the generals in Lodz. Purpose Travel is not installed.
at all railway stations APRONS held white stripes; rail poles, which are kept lean-tos to the inputs in railway buildings of 1-2 meters from the base, painted with white paint. All steps of cars also painted white. All this is done to prevent panic in the getting on and off during blackout. (The white pillars, you can find the door.)
At nightfall, the Border is transmitted to field units, which it shall be until the morning.
movement of civilians in the Border. bandwidth is minimized. The whole band is in close proximity to the border intensified artillery and machine-gun positions, with the complete organization of telephone communications between the batteries, command, observation points.
for the recent increase in artillery live-fire exercises.
pogranpolosy population living on farms of small crustaceans, Pazhiha (South-Eastern Zboyna), Ore-Osovetskaya and others (all nationalities) evicted in the hinterland.
Farms used to mask the positions and firing points.
population of the villages and towns has received formal instruction that, if anyone during the war would panic - he will be shot on location.
All civilian medical facilities in large and small settlements of the General Government - is caught up in hospitals. Hospitals are provided as appropriate, the number of beds, and German caregivers (Warsaw).
finalized all civilian objects to measures of AD and PD (blackout, fire prevention measures, decontamination chambers, etc.).
To date, the railway bridges, and bridges on the highways east of Warsaw - restored and partly re-built. All bridges across pp. Vistula, Bug, Narew - Protected by field units.
Ends hidden mobilization of officials for future positions in the western Soviet Union, what were the documents and reported in razvedsvodkah number 10 and 13. These officials all warned and are just waiting for the start of hostilities.
many churches and cemeteries of all faiths used for warehouses, firing positions and observation posts (machine gun, and art. the point at the cemetery fence, ammunition depots under the church) - Suwalki, Island, Siedlce.
Obviously, in a future war against the USSR, the German High Command intends to distribute reports that the Reds have bombed churches and cemetery. This tactic can be a good play on the religious feelings, mainly Poles.
in Prague, Czech paratroopers operating rates at which mobilized members of the Belarusian Committee of Warsaw. At the beginning of hostilities skydivers will throw in the rear of the Soviet Belarus for perform the tasks of sabotage. Raised took the oath of storing secrets.
Apiaries at the station (11 km South-Eastern Rózsa), 05/24/1941, the special commission, headed by General, investigated the possible average daily discharge troop trains at this station. The first trains, which now follow with the Balkan theater General Government, 2-3 June, presumably, would be unloaded at the station. Apiary.
The fact that the possibility of outbreak of hostilities the Germans against the Soviet Union not excluded in June of m-chains, the following facts: according to information that requires verification, 05.24.1941, the subsidiary of German intelligence in Ciechanow sent to the territory USSR five agents with the installation: return not later than 05/06/1941, the
One of the agents said that by that time, from Bialystok and Grodno, he will not have time to return. Major - beg. razvedpunkta on this answer: after 05/06/1941, the possible outbreak of hostilities with the Soviet Union, because he can not, outside of these dates to ensure the life agent, so visit Bialystok and Grodno him expelled.
Agents go into areas: Kolno, Lomza, pure Boron (Art. 13 km South-Eastern Lomza) and Zambra.
All agents have the following tasks:
a) set% b officers. royal army, consisting now serving in the Red Army, and their attitude toward the Soviet regime;
b) what% of the Army has Soviet officers have received training from the officers used. imperial army, and their attitude towards the Bolsheviks and their moral character;
a) what is% of officers - descendants of the Bolshevik schools and trained only Bolshevik officers;
r) are encouraged if the Red Army officers were used. Polish army, if yes, what is their attitude towards this event and their moral character;
e) the mood of the civilian population: they say the Poles, Belarusians, and especially the Jews, maintaining contact with the Anglo-American Jews. Whether they consider it possible that the USSR would be able to resist the Germans.
Polish population the experience of preparing for war in Germany and Poland in 1939 and German soldiers on the existing experience of war - also consider the inevitable outbreak of hostilities with the Soviet Union in the near future.
To date, the overwhelming majority of the working class of the General Government is sympathetic to the USSR.
numerically and economically predominant low-power Polish peasants (4-5 ha) in an extreme case will remain neutral (in time of war events), and in many cases will provide active assistance of the Red Army.
Polish upper class, as well as most of the officers of the German armies, which are concentrated in a band against the commandments, believe that their success in the war with the Soviet Union will be provided. The main argument in their opinion are as follows: "failure" of the USSR in the Finnish operations and growth of the alleged domestic discontent in the USSR, especially in the newly annexed areas.
Former Polish, the most privileged bourgeois intellectuals (lawyers, doctors, freelancers) is set up anti-Soviet. This social category is currently employed by the Germans.
should also be borne in mind that in the past weeks of political and national press with regard to non-Germanic nationalities somewhat weakened, but rising prices and economic plunder of the nations continues to grow even in larger sizes than before.
CONCLUSION
information about the accelerated training of theater and the strengthening of military forces in the strip against the commandments - are trustworthy.
data about the arrival of two divisions of the SS "in Suwalki - require additional verification.
Chief of Staff of the intelligence Zapovit
Colonel BLOKHIN
Head 3rd Dep. PO Staff Zapovit
Major Samoilovich
3.6.41, the
TsAMO. F. 11ZA. Op. 1448. D. 6, L. 181-187.
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