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Mikhailov VS Essays on the history of military industry (with a preface by VV Polikarpov)

Until recently, time the name of General VS Mikhailov is rarely found in historical publications, his work itself proceeded in this sphere, which is not subject to universal Review. Created on the eve of the death of his major literary work (published below) - «Essay on the history of military industry» (1928) - not "was released, how come the other major special studies, and vice versa, was hidden under the stamp:" Secret. Used only for military and scientific work and business purposes. " Multiplied in a few numbered copies, he was immediately withdrawn even from departmental circulation, since the author was arrested on false charges of counter-revolutionary conspiracy and executed. The fact of existence in 1928 such work was known only to specialists, committed to the classified material that appeared in this short period of time and could still contain a mention of it. Only recently, when gradually recovered memory of the victims of the communist regime, the name of the executed engineer appeared in print ^a .

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expelled and killed

Sergei Sumlenniy , correspondent of the magazine «expert» in Frankfurt am Main .

14 million Germans were expelled from their homes in Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary and other Eastern European countries after the war. Only 12 million were able to get to Germany alive. The tragedy of the expulsion of German civilians not recognized Germany's neighbors are still

In many cities, ethnic Germans were required to wear clothing decals, sometimes with a swastika

Photo: Oestlichenachbam.bayern.de

«B reslau, Oppeln, Gleyvits, Glogau, Grunberg - not just names, but the memories that will live the souls more than one generation. Rejection of them - treason. Cross expulsion shall carry all the people "- these words, addressed in 1963 by exiled from Eastern Europe to the Germans belong to the Federal Chancellor Willy Brandt.

symbolic that, in listing the city of which were brutally expelled German population, Brandt calls and Gleyvits - a small town on the old border of Germany and Poland, with German provocations which started in the second World War II.

Anyway, at the end of the war most had to drink the bitter cup, not the beginning of its military elite, and ethnic Germans, resided in the territory of Eastern Europe. Despite the fact that he acted at that time, the Hague Convention of 1907 expressly prohibits expropriation of the civilian population (art. 46), and denied the principle of collective responsibility (Article 50), almost fifteen million Germans, mostly women, elderly and children, within three years had been driven from their homes and their property - looted.

Exile Germans from Eastern Europe was accompanied by large-scale organized violence, including confiscation of property, move to a concentration camps and deportation - despite the fact that in August 1945, the Statute of the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg declared the deportation of nations as a crime against humanity.

Polish disaster

largest scale expulsion of the Germans reached in Poland. By the end of the war in This country is home to more than 4 million Germans. They were mostly concentrated on the German territory transferred to Poland in 1945: in Silesia (1,6 million), Pomerania (1.8 million) and in East Brandenburg (600 thousand), as well as historic areas densely populated by Germans in the territory Poland (400 thousand). In addition, more than 2 million Germans lived in East Prussia, go under Soviet control.

first working version of the deportation of the Germans was submitted to the Government of the Benes Allied Powers in November 1944

Photo: Oestlichenachbam.bayern.de

early winter 1945, waiting for the imminent arrival of Soviet troops, living in Poland, the Germans moved west, and the local Polish population began to mass violence against refugees. Spring of 1945, the whole Polish villages specialized in looting fleeing Germans - men killed, women raped.

early February 5, 1945 Prime Minister provisional government of Poland Boleslaw Bierut issued a decree to transfer under Polish control former German territories east of the line Oder-Neisse , that was an outspoken claim to rebuilding post-war borders.

May 2, 1945 Take signed a decree according to which all Germans abandoned property is automatically passed into the hands of the Polish State - Thus expected to facilitate the resettlement of displaced populations to the west from the eastern territories, partial retreat of the Soviet Union.

parallel, the Polish authorities subjected the remaining German population of persecution on the model of those that were practiced in Nazi Germany against Jews. Thus, in many cities ethnic Germans were required to wear clothing decals, mostly white armbands, sometimes with a swastika. Hanging on the German markings, however, did not stop.

Already by the summer of 1945, the Polish government began rounding up the remaining German population into concentration camps, usually calculated at 3-5 thousand. In the camp were sent only to adults, children in this taken away from parents and passed either in shelters or in a Polish family - in any case, their further education was conducted in a spirit of absolute polonization. Adults also used as forced laborers, and in the winter of 1945/1946, the mortality in the camps reached 50%.

Operation interned German population is actively carried out until the autumn of 1946, when the Polish government decided to begin the deportation of survivors Germans. September 13 signed a decree on the "office of German nationality of the Polish people." However, the continued exploitation of prisoners concentration camps to be an important component of the economies of Poland and the deportation of Germans kept putting it off, despite the decree. Camps continued violence over the German prisoners. So, in the camp Potulitse between 1947 and 1949 from hunger, cold, disease and abuse by security guards killed half the prisoners.

final deportation of Germans from Poland was started only after 1949. Estimated Union expelled the Germans, the loss of the German population in exile from Poland amounted to about 3 million people.

Truly Czech thoroughness

second country after Poland in scale solutions, "German question" was Czechoslovakia. In pre-war Czechoslovakia, the Germans were a quarter of the population country. They were mostly concentrated in the Sudetenland - there are 3 million Germans, representing 93% of the population of the region. A large proportion of Germans present and in Moravia (800 thousand people, or one quarter of the population), a large German community there was in Bratislava.

In 1938, received at the conference Munich approval of Heads of Governments of Britain, France and Italy, Nazi Germany occupied the Sudetenland, adding to its territory neighborhood-Germans. In 1939, German troops occupied the remainder of Czechoslovakia, the Czech Republic is based on the so-called protectorate Bohemia and Moravia and in Slovakia - the puppet Slovak Republic. However, the government had left the Czech Republic in London.

It was in London Czech government in exile, first to formulate plans for the mass deportation of ethnic Germans after the war. Hubert Ripka, the nearest Adviser to the President Edward Benes, dreaming about the mass expulsion of Germans already in 1941, arguing in the pages of newspapers Čechoslovak - an official body Czech government in exile - the "organized by the application of the principle of resettlement of peoples."

views of his adviser fully shared and President Benes. In autumn 1941 and winter of 1942 Benes published two articles in the journals The Nineteenth Century and After, and Foreign Affairs, which developed the concept of "moving population, which should be to help streamline the post-war Europe. Not being sure, will be persuaded the British in the implementation plans to deport three million German inhabitants, the Czech government in exile, just in case to begin similar negotiations with representatives of Soviet leadership.

In March 1943, Benes met with Soviet Ambassador Alexander Bogomolov and asked for support for their plans ethnic cleansing of postwar Czechoslovakia. Bogomolov, declined to discuss plans, however, Benes was indefatigable, and even during trips to the USA в июне 1943−го смог убедить как американское, так и советское руководство поддержать планы депортации немцев. Получив эту поддержку, чешское правительство began to develop a detailed plan of ethnic cleansing. First working version of the deportation of the Germans was submitted by the Government of the Benes union Powers in November 1944. According to the memorandum of Benes, the deportation should be carried out in all areas of the Czech population is less than 67% (two thirds) and continue for as long as the German population had been reduced to below 33%.

to implement these plans, the Czech authorities have started immediately after the liberation of Czechoslovakia by Soviet troops. In the spring of 1945 across the country began the massive acts of violence against ethnic Germans.

main engine of violence made by volunteering 1 st Czechoslovak Brigade, commanded by Ludvik Svoboda - the so-called Army Freedom. Ludvik Svoboda had old scores with ethnic Germans. In 1938, following the accession of the Sudetenland to Germany, the Liberty was one of the founders of "Protection of the Nation" - Czech guerrilla insurgent organization. Now, 60 thousand Czech soldiers, commanded by Ludvik Svoboda had the opportunity to revenge which became a defenseless German population.

Clippings root

Entire villages and towns inhabited by the Germans, experienced unpunished Violence Czechs. Across the country, from the German population formed marching columns, people are not allowed to gather virtually any things - and without остановок гнали к границе. Отставших или упавших зачастую убивали прямо на глазах у всей колонны. Местному чешскому населению было строго запрещено provide any assistance deportees to the Germans.

In only one such "death march" - the expulsion of 27 thousand Germans from Brno - at a distance 55 km were killed, according to various estimates, from 4 to 8 thousand people.

expulsion of Germans from Eastern Europe was accompanied by large-scale organized violence, including the confiscation of property, putting into concentration camps and deportation

Photo: Oestlichenachbam.bayern.de

At the border the Germans were expelled procedure "customs clearance", during which they often were taken even the few things that they carry on themselves. But those who managed to get to the occupation zones in the former Germany - even robbed - jealous of his compatriots who have remained under властью Бенеша.

17 мая 1945 года отряд чешских военных вошел в городок Ландскрон (сегодня Ланшкроун) и устроил «суд» над его жителями, в ходе которого within three days was sentenced to death 121 people - sentences are executed immediately. In Postelberge (today Postoloprty) within five days - from 3 to 7 June 1945 - the Czechs were tortured and killed 760 Germans aged 15 to 60 years, one fifth of the German city's population.

One of the most heinous cases occurred during the night from 18 th to June 19 in the city Prerau (today Prerov). Czech soldiers there, coming back from Prague with celebrations of the end of the war, met with a train carrying German population, which at the end of the war were evacuated in Bohemia and now deported to the Soviet occupation zone. Czechs, Germans were ordered to leave the train and begin to excavate for the mass grave. Old men and women are hard to fulfill orders to soldiers and the grave was ready until midnight. After that Czech soldiers under command of an officer Carol Pazura shot 265 Germans, among whom were 120 women and 74 children. The oldest of those killed were civilians 80 years old and the youngest - eight months. After finishing shooting, the Czechs sacked things that belonged to the refugees.

Dozens of similar cases have occurred spring-summer 1945 and throughout Czechoslovakia.

«Spontaneous retaliation" peaked in June-July 1945, scurried across the Czech Republic militias terrorizing the German population. To maintain the degree of violence the government Benes even formed a special body in charge of ethnic cleansing: the Ministry of Internal Affairs Department was established to implement the "odsuna" - "banishment." All of Czechoslovakia was divided into 13 districts, each headed was responsible for the expulsion of the Germans. In total, the department of Interior on the expulsion of 1200 people employed.

Such a sharp escalation of violence forced the allies to express their dissatisfaction with these actions, which immediately aroused strong dissatisfaction with the Czechs, have dealt with the murder and expulsion of the Germans as their natural right. The result of dissatisfaction with the Czechs became the note of August 16, 1945, in which Czech government has raised the total deportation of the remaining 2.5 million Germans. According to the note, 1.75 million people have been resettled in the U.S. occupation zone, and 0.75 million - in the Soviet. About 500 thousand Germans by this time had already been expelled from the country. The outcome of negotiations with the union of Czechs Powers has permission to deport the German population, but in an orderly manner and without incident. By 1950, Czechoslovakia, escaped of the German minority.

Europe without the Germans

apparent in Poland and the Czech Republic, violence against ethnic Germans in one degree or another observed in other Eastern European countries. In Hungary, the Hungarian authorities to conflict with the German minority clearly manifested itself even before the war. Already in 1920, immediately after the formation of a national Hungarian state, the country began to pursue a policy of harsh discrimination against the German minority. German schools were closed, ethnic Germans were purged from the government. The man with the German name was ordered any career. In 1930, an order Secretary of Defense ordered all the officers, wearing German names, change them to the Hungarian - or resign.

the German position improved markedly after turning Hungary into a satellite of Nazi Germany, but few of the Germans living in Hungary doubted that with the departure of German troops their positions very seriously impaired. That's why in April 1944, German troops have taken a number of unsuccessful attempts to evacuate ethnic Germans from Hungary.

crackdown began in March 1945. March 15 new Hungarian government adopted a draft land reform, under which it was possible to confiscate the land as the German organizations, and the Germans - of individuals. However, even landless Germans remained a thorn for the Hungarian authorities. Therefore, in December 1945 was prepared by the decree of deportation "traitors and enemies of the people."

Under this category fall not only members of the German military forces, but also persons who have returned themselves between 1940 and 1945, the German name, and identified in the census in 1940 as their native language German. All property is subject to deportation unconditional confiscation. According to various It is estimated that the deportation raised from 500 to 600 thousand ethnic Germans.

nonthermal reception

Probably the most peaceful deportation of Germans held in Romania. Here at the end of the war there were about 750 thousand Germans, many of which were centrally relocated to Romania in 1940 from the territories occupied by Soviet troops (the resettlement of Germans in Romania from Soviet Moldova regulated by treaties between the USSR and Germany on September 5 1940).

After the capitulation of the government of Antonescu and the arrival of Soviet troops of the new Romanian government to refrain from harassment policy German minority. While in areas densely populated by Germans, a curfew was imposed, and the residents were confiscated cars, bicycles, radios and other items considered dangerous, in Romania, almost did not report any spontaneous or organized cases of violence against the German population. Gradual deportation of Germans from the country continued until the early 1950's, and in recent years, the Germans themselves sought permission to travel to Germany.

By 1950 the population at the beginning of Soviet and Western occupation zones, and then East and West Germany increased за счет прибывших беженцев на 12 млн человек. Изгнанные из стран Восточной Европы немцы были распределены практически по всем регионам Германии, In some areas, such as Mecklenburg in northeast country, refugees accounted for 45% of the local population. Not only in some regions of Germany on refugees had taken less than 20% of the population.

Meanwhile, despite the large proportion of refugees, the issue of expulsion of Germans from Eastern Europe has long remained a taboo subject in both the east and the west. In the western zones of occupation - and later in Germany - Ousted the Germans until 1950 it was forbidden to organize any unions. According to historian Ingo Haar, dealing with the problems of uprooted Germans, only the beginning of the Korean War and the worsening of relations with the Soviet Union led western politicians to acknowledge the suffering of the German people and legalize mention the expulsion of Germans from Poland, Czechoslovakia and other countries.

In the GDR, the events were concealed until the late 1980's as capable of seriously complicate relations with the communist Czechoslovakia and Poland. Today the topic of expulsion of Germans from Eastern Europe still remains one of the most sensitive issues in relations between Germany and Poland and the Czech Republic. According to opinion polls, more than half of Germans still perceive Silesia and Pomerania as German territory - though not seek to return them to the German.

Poles did not cease to express their related to the activities of the Union of German expellees, putting on magazine covers, collages, depicting the leader of the Union Eric Steinbach in SS form. The protests of the Polish government and led to the opening this year in Berlin, the information center dedicated to the deportation of Germans from Poland. Even today, the pain of half a century old crime and mutual resentment sosedstvuyushie make people wary of the slightest attempt remember what happened in 1945.

Frankfurt am Main

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Lupa Capitolina

Lupa Capitolina, the famous bronze sculpture, housed Capitoline Museums in Rome, was founded in the XIII century AD, but not in the V century BC. Such conclusion was a group of researchers from the University of Salerno headed by Professor Adriano La Regina, in the past - the largest Roman officials for Cultural Heritage. A new dating of the She-wolf wrote The Guardian quoting at La Reppublica.

from the XVIII century, when the Lupa Capitolina has described the largest German art historian Johann Winckelmann, this sculpture was considered Etruscan. Authorship small statues of Romulus and Remus were known documented: they did at the end of the XV century Florentine artist Antonio del Pollayolo. In the XIX century assumption Winckelmann tried to challenge at least two scientists who believed a she-wolf later, medieval work, but the authority of the German writer was so great that his opinion continued to listen.

In 2006, Anna Maria Karrubi (Anna Maria Carruba), a specialist in metallurgy, restored Lupa Capitolina, unveiled conclusions: in her view, the sculpture could not do before VIII-X centuries. The fact that the ancients were not able to cast large statues all: they were made in installments, and then welded. Lupa also was made immediately and completely.

Lupa Capitolina is the symbol of the football club Roma, Italy used its in the symbolism of the Rome Olympics in 1960.